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The ‘Alawite ʿaqīdah
Alawites have always described themselves as being Twelver Shi’ite Muslims and have been recognized as such by the prominent Lebanese Shi’ite cleric Musa al-Sadr.[62] The Sunni Grand Mufti of Jerusalem Haj Amin al-Husseini issued a fatwa recognising them as part of the Muslim community in the interest of Arab nationalism.[63][64] However, Athari Sunni (modern day Salafis) scholars such as Ibn Kathir (a disciple of Ibn Taymiyya) have categorised Alawites as pagans in their writings.[57][65][66]
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Barry Rubin has suggested that Syrian leader Hafiz al-Assad and his son and successor Bashar al-Assad pressed their fellow Alawites “to behave like regular Muslims, shedding (or at least concealing) their distinctive aspects”.[67] During the early 1970s a booklet, al-`Alawiyyun Shi’atu Ahl al-Bait (“The Alawites are Followers of the Household of the Prophet”) was published, which was “signed by numerous ‘Alawi’ men of religion”, described the doctrines of the Imami Shia as Alawite.[68] Additionally, there has been a recent movement to unite Alawism and the other branches of Twelver Islam through educational exchange programs in Syria and Qom.[69]
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Some sources have discussed the “Sunnification” of Alawites under the al-Assad regime.[70] Joshua Landis, director of the Center for Middle East Studies, writes that Hafiz al-Assad “tried to turn Alawites into ‘good’ (read Sunnified) Muslims in exchange for preserving a modicum of secularism and tolerance in society”. On the other hand, Al-Assad “declared the Alawites to be nothing but Twelver Shiites”.[70] In a paper, “Islamic Education in Syria”, Landis wrote that “no mention” is made in Syrian textbooks (controlled by the Al-Assad regime) of Alawites, Druze, Ismailis or Shia Islam; Islam was presented as a monolithic religion.[71] Ali Sulayman al-Ahmad, chief judge of the Baathist Syrian state, has said:
We are ‘Alawi Muslims. Our book is the Qur’an. Our prophet is Muhammad. The Ka`ba is our qibla, and our Dīn (religion) is Islam.[55]
Kızılbaşlık
Main articles: Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam and Qizilbash
The Qizilbash ʿaqīdah
Shah Ismail I, the Sheikh of the Safavi tariqa, founder of the Safavid Dynasty of Iran, and the Commander-in-chief of the Kızılbaş armies had contributed a lot for the development and implementation of The Qizilbash ʿAqīdah amongst the Turkmen people.
Qizilbash and Bektashi tariqah shared common religious beliefs and practices becoming intermingled as Alevis in spite of many local variations. Isolated from both the Sunni Ottomans and the Twelver Shi`a Safavids, Qizilbash and Bektashi developed traditions, practices, and doctrines by the early 17th century which marked them as a closed autonomous religious community. As a result of the immense pressures to conform to Sunni Islam, all members of Alevism developed a tradition of opposition (ibāḥa) to all forms of external religion.[40]
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The doctrine of Qizilbashism is well explained in the following poem written by the Shaykh of Safaviyya tariqah Shāh Ismāʿil Khatai:
من داها نسنه بيلمه زه م / Men daha nesne bilmezem, (I don’t know any other object)
١ّللَه بير محممد على́دير / Allah bir Muhammad-Ali’dir. (Allah is unique Muhammad-Ali)
اؤزوم غوربتده سالمازام / Özüm gurbette salmazam, (I can’t let out my own essence to places far from my homeland)
١ّللَه بير محممد على́دير / Allah bir Muhammad-Ali’dir. (Allah is unique Muhammad-Ali)
اونلار بيردير، بير اولوبدور / Onlar birdir, bir oluştur, (They are unique, a single one, i.e. Haqq-Muhammad-Ali)
يئردن گؤيه نور اولوبدور / Yerden göğe nûr oluştur, (It’s a nūr from Earth to Sky)
دؤرد گوشه ده سيرر اولوبدور، / Dört guşede sır oluştur, (It’s a mysterious occult secret in every corner of the square)
١ّللَه بير محممد على́دير / Allah bir Muhammad-Ali’dir. (Allah is unique Muhammad-Ali)
ختايى بو يولدا سردير / Khatai bu yolda sırdır, (Khatai in this tariqah is a mysterious occult secret)
سرين وئره نلر ده اردير / Sırın verenler de erdir, (Those reveal their own secret are private as well)
آيدا سيردير، گونده نوردور / Ayda sırdır, günde nûrdur, (Secret on Moon, nūr on day)
١ّللَه بير محممد على́دير / Allah bir Muhammad-Ali’dir. (Allah is unique Muhammad-Ali)
The lines of poetry above may easily be judged as an act of “Shirk” (polytheism) by the Sunni Ulama, but they have a bāṭenī[42] taʾwīl (inner explanation) in Qizilbashism.
Further information: Khatai, Muhammad-Ali, and Haqq-Muhammad-Ali
Tashbih
Main articles: Tashbih and Anthropopathy
Karram’iyyah
Main article: Karramiyya
Anthropomorphic-Anthropopathic Karram’iyyah was founded by Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad b. Karrām.[72] Ibn Karram considered that God was a substance and that He had a body (jism) finite in certain directions when He comes into contact with the Throne.[73][22][74]
Further information: Anthropomorphism
Anthropopathy in the history of Ghulāt Shia
Main articles: Anthropopathism, Anthropotheism, and Incarnation (Christianity)
The belief of Incarnation was first emerged in Sabaʾiyya, and later some personalities like Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah, Abu Muslim, Sunpadh, Ishaq al-Turk, Al-Muqanna, Babak Khorramdin, Maziar and Ismail I had become the subject of God incarnates.
Further information: Ghulāt, List of extinct Shia sects, Kaysanites Shia, and Khurramites
Ahmadiyya
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Ahmadiyya Islam
The Ahmadis’ beliefs are more aligned with the Sunni tradition, such as The Five Pillars of Islam and The Six articles of Islamic Faith. Likewise, Ahmadis accept the Qur’an as their holy text, face the Kaaba during prayer, accept the authority of Hadiths (reported sayings of and stories about Muhammad) and practice the Sunnah (traditions) of Muhammad.[75] However, Many Muslims consider Ahmadis as heretics.[76][77][78][79]
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Ahmadi teachings state that the founders of all the major world religions had divine origins. God was working towards the establishment of Islam as the final religion, because it was the most complete and included all the previous teachings of other religion[80] (but they believe that all other religions have gone astray in their present form). The completion and consummation of the development of religion came about with the coming of Muhammad; and that the perfection of the ‘manifestation’ of Muhammad’s prophethood and of the conveyance of his message was destined to occur with the coming of the Mahdi.[81]
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The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community regard Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, who claimed to be the promised Messiah (“Second Coming of Christ”) the Mahdi awaited by the Muslims and a ‘subordinate’ prophet to Muhammad whose job was to restore the Sharia given to Muhammad by guiding or rallying disenchanted Ummah back to Islam and thwart attacks on Islam by its opponents, as the “Promised One” of all religions fulfilling eschatological prophecies found in the scriptures of the Abrahamic religions, as well as Zoroastrianism, the Indian religions, Native American traditions and others.[82] Ahmadi Muslims believe that Ahmad was divinely commissioned as a true reflection of Muhammad’s prophethood to establish the unity of God and to remind mankind of their duties towards God and God’s creation.
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