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Furthermore, during the period of Ottoman Empire, Alevis were forbidden to proselytise, and Alevism regenerated itself internally by paternal descent. To prevent penetration by hostile outsiders, the Alevis insisted on strict endogamy which eventually made them into a quasi-ethnic group. Alevi taboos limited interaction with the dominant Sunni political-religious centre. Excommunication was the ultimate punishment threatening those who married outsiders, cooperated with outsiders economically, or ate with outsiders. It was also forbidden to use the state (Sunni) courts.[40]

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The Fourteen Infallibles

Principles

Other beliefs

Practices

Other practices

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Groups

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Baktāshism (Bektaşilik)

Main article: Bektashism

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The founder of the Bektashi sufi order Hacı Bektaş-ı Veli (Ḥājjī Baktāsh Walī), a murid of Malāmatī-Qalāndārī Sheikh Qutb ad-Dīn Haydar, who introduced the Ahmad Yasavi’s doctrine of “Four Doors and Forty Stending” into his tariqah.

Baktāshi Islamic School of Divinity

Main articles: Bektashiyyah and Wahdat-ul-Wujood

The Bektashi Yah is a Shia Sufi order founded in the 13th century by Haji Bektash Veli, a dervish who escaped Central Asia and found refuge with the Seljuks in Anatolia at the time of the Mongol invasions (1219–23). This order gained a great following in rural areas and it later developed in two branches: the Çelebi clan, who claimed to be physical descendants of Haji Bektash Veli, were called “Bel evladları” (children of the loins), and became the hereditary spiritual leaders of the rural Alevis; and the Babağan, those faithful to the path “Yol evladları” (children of the way), who dominated the official Bektashi Sufi order with its elected leadership.[40]

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Bektashism places much emphasis on the concept of Wahdat-ul-Wujood وحدة الوجود, the “Unity of Being ” that was formulated by Ibn Arabi. This has often been labeled as pantheism, although it is a concept closer to panentheism. Bektashism is also heavily permeated with Shiite concepts, such as the marked veneration of Ali, The Twelve Imams, and the ritual commemoration of Ashura marking the Battle of Karbala. The old Persian holiday of Nowruz is celebrated by Bektashis as Imam Ali’s birthday.

In keeping with the central belief of Wahdat-ul-Wujood the Bektashi see reality contained in Haqq-Muhammad-Ali, a single unified entity. Bektashi does not consider this a form of trinity. There are many other practices and ceremonies that share similarity with other faiths, such as a ritual meal (muhabbet) and yearly confession of sins to a baba (maghfirat-i zunub مغفرة الذنوب). Bektashis base their practices and rituals on their non-orthodox and mystical interpretation and understanding of the Qur’an and the prophetic practice (Sunnah). They have no written doctrine specific to them, thus rules and rituals may differ depending on under whose influence one has been taught. Bektashis generally revere Sufi mystics outside of their own order, such as Ibn Arabi, Al-Ghazali and Jelalludin Rumi who are close in spirit to them.

The Baktāshi ʿaqīdah

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Four Spiritual Stations in Bektashi Yah: Sharia, tariqa, haqiqa, and the fourth station, marifa, which is considered “unseen”, is actually the center of the haqiqa region. Marifa is the essence of all four stations.

Main articles: Mysticism, Four Doors, Hajji Bektash Wali, Sharia, Tariqa, Haqiqa, and Marifa

The Bektashi Order is a Sufi order and shares much in common with other Islamic mystical movements, such as the need for an experienced spiritual guide — called a baba in Bektashi parlance — as well as the doctrine of “the four gates that must be traversed”: the “Sharia” (religious law), “Tariqah” (the spiritual path), “Haqiqah” (truth), and “Marifa” (true knowledge).

Bektashis hold that the Qur’an has two levels of meaning: an outer (Zāher ظاهر) and an inner (bāṭen باطن).[42] They hold the latter to be superior and eternal and this is reflected in their understanding of both the universe and humanity, which is a view that can also be found in Ismailism and Batiniyya.[29]

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Bektashism is also initiatic and members must traverse various levels or ranks as they progress along the spiritual path to the Reality. First level members are called aşıks عاشق. They are those who, while not having taken initiation into the order, are nevertheless drawn to it. Following initiation (called nasip) one becomes a mühip محب. After some time as a mühip, one can take further vows and become a dervish. The next level above dervish is that of baba. The baba (lit. father) is considered to be the head of a tekke and qualified to give spiritual guidance (irshad إرشاد). Above the baba is the rank of halife-baba (or dede, grandfather). Traditionally there were twelve of these, the most senior being the desibaba (great-grandfather). The dede baba was considered to be the highest ranking authority in the Bektashi Order. Traditionally the residence of the dede baba was the Pir Evi (The Saint’s Home) which was located in the shrine of Hajji Bektash Wali in the central Anatolian town of Hacıbektaş (Sulucakarahöyük).

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Further information: Aliens, Arabati Baba Teḱe, Bektashism, Demir Baba Teke, and Hurufism

Ithnā’ashariyyah

Main articles: Twelvers and Imamah (Shia Twelver doctrine)

Twelvers believe in twelve Imams. The twelfth Imam is believed to be in occultation, and will appear again just before the Qiyamah (Islamic view of the Last Judgment). The Shia hadiths include the sayings of the Imams. Many Muslims criticise the Shia for certain beliefs and practices, including practices such as the Mourning of Muharram (Mätam). They are the largest Shia school of thought (93%), predominant in Azerbaijan, Iran, Iraq, Lebanon and Bahrain and have a significant population in Pakistan, India, Afghanistan Kuwait and the Eastern province of Saudi Arabia. The Twelver Shia are followers of either the Jaf’ari or Batiniyyah madh’habs.

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Imami-Ja’faris

Main articles: Ja’fari jurisprudence and Theology of Twelvers

Followers of the Jafari madhab are divided into the following subdivisions, all of them are the followers of the Theology of Twelvers:

Usulism

The Usuli form the overwhelming majority within the Twelver Shia denomination. They follow a Marja-i Taqlid on the subject of taqlid and fiqh. They are concentrated in Iran, Pakistan, Azerbaijan, India, Iraq, and Lebanon.

Further information: Usulism

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Imam Ali Shrine in Najaf, Iraq, where Shias believe Ali is buried.

Akhbarism

Akhbari, similar to Usulis, however rejected ijtihad in favor of hadith. Concentrated in Bahrain.

Further information: Akhbarism

Shaykhism

Shaykhism is an Islamic religious movement founded by Shaykh Ahmad in the early 19th century Qajar dynasty, Iran, now retaining a minority following in Iran and Iraq. It began from a combination of Sufi and Shia and Akhbari doctrines. In the mid 19th-century many Shaykhis converted to the Bábí and Baháʼí religions, which regard Shaykh Ahmad highly.

Further information: Shaykhism

Ghulāt-Imamis

Main articles: Ghulāt and imami

‘Alawism

Main articles: Al-Khaṣībī, Ibn Nusayr, and Alawites

Alawites are also called Nusayris, Nusairis, Namiriya or Ansariyya. Their madhhab is established by Ibn Nusayr, and their aqidah is developed by Al-Khaṣībī. They follow Cillī aqidah of “Maymūn ibn Abu’l-Qāsim Sulaiman ibn Ahmad ibn at-Tabarānī fiqh” of the ‘Alawis.[35][43] One million three hundred and fifty thousand of them lived in Syria and Lebanon in 1970. It is estimated they are 10–12% of the population of Syria of 23 million in 2013.[44]

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‘Alawite Islamic School of Divinity

Alawites consider themselves to be Muslims, although some Sunnis dispute that they are.[45] Alawite doctrine incorporates Gnostic, neo-Platonic, Islamic, Christian and other elements and has, therefore, been described as syncretistic.[46][47] Their theology is based on a divine triad,[45][48][49] or trinity, which is the core of Alawite belief.[50] The triad comprises three emanations of the one God: the supreme aspect or entity called the “Essence”[50] or the “Meaning”[49] (both being translations of ma’na), together with two lesser emanations known as his “Name” (ism), or “Veil” (hijab), and his “Gate” (bab).[48][49][50][51] These emanations have manifested themselves in different human forms over several cycles in history, the last cycle of which was as Ali (the Essence/Meaning), Muhammad (the Name) and Salman the Persian (the Gate).[48][50][51][52] Alawite belief is summarised in the formula: “I turn to the Gate; I bow before the Name; I adore the Meaning”.[45] The claim that Alawites believe Ali is a deity has been contested by some scholars as a misrepresentation on the basis that Ali is, in fact, considered an “essence or form”, not a human being, by which believers can “grasp God”.[53] Alawites also hold that they were originally stars or divine lights that were cast out of heaven through disobedience and must undergo repeated reincarnation (or metempsychosis[50]) before returning to heaven.[45][51] They can be reincarnated as Christians or others through sin and as animals if they become infidels.[45][54]

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Alawite beliefs have never been confirmed by their modern religious authorities.[55] Alawites tend to conceal their beliefs (taqiyya) due to historical persecution.[56] Some tenets of the faith are secret, known only to a select few;[57][58] therefore, they have been described as a mystical sect.[59] In addition to Islamic festivals, the Alawites have been reported to celebrate or honor certain Christian festivals such as the birth of Jesus and Palm Sunday.[60][61] Their most-important feast is Eid al-Ghadeer.